Written by Delia Oltean –

Looking at the frontage of the Hurtubise House is to look at a lot of small details that combine to create the house’s particular architecture. Letting your eyes wander over the double-sided roof, the fieldstone or the stonework around the windows reveals a lot about the evolution of the house, but also about the history of these architectural elements.

An “anchor” is a piece of metal that prevents two parts of a structure from moving apart over time. Since the movement of the ground can cause a building to move apart, the purpose of the anchor is to reduce this effect by attaching itself to the floor beams and to the walls (Culture et communication Québec, 2001). In addition to holding various parts together, anchors are visible from the outside since part of the element protrudes from the exterior wall (Paré, 1993). Far from being only observable in one and the same version, they can take different forms. Thus, anchors in the shape of the letter S are simply called “esses” (Culture et communications Québec, 2015). 

If you look closely, you can see that between the roof of the Hurtubise House and the stone walls, there are some anchors to hold these two structural elements together. Also, around the openings, you can notice other anchors called esses that are embedded in the stone walls. Around the front windows of the house for example, the esses were probably only used to hold the shutters that were installed at the time. It must be said that the shape of the metal letter S is often carefully forged creating an arabesque effect, which makes this small element very pretty on a frontage! Thus, they can also fulfill aesthetic purposes.

Since esses can also hold louvres, it would be interesting to demystify what the difference is between a shutter, a blind, louvre or a brace—terms that often seem to get mixed up…

Perhaps we should start by establishing that shutters can never be seen outside: they are designed to be placed inside, close to the windows themselves. Braces, on the other hand, can be found outside, although they are solid panels that are placed in front of the windows to block the wind, for example. An expanded version of braces, louvres became popular a little later in history (City of Lévis). From the solid wood panel, long strips are removed to allow ventilation and a view to the outside. When the slats are mobile, the louvre is called a blind (Culture et communications, 2015). The Maison Hurtubise had louvres around the windows for a long time; now removed, they are displayed inside the house. A few pictures still remain to testify of this bygone era and to give us an idea of what it might have looked like. 

You just have to open your eyes to find the esses or the hooks used to hang the louvres in those days. Will you find them?

Sources:

• Culture et communications Québec. (2015). Glossaire du vocabulaire de l’architecture québécoise. Culture et communications Québec. https://www.mcc.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/documents/patrimoine/Glossaire_vocabulaire-architecture-quebecoise.pdf
• Culture et communications Québec. (2001). Guide d’intervention en patrimoine. Culture et communications Québec. http://www.mrccharlevoix.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Guide-intervention-du-patrimoine.pdf 
• Paré, G. (1993). Vocabulaire de la maçonnerie. Les Éditions de l’Équerre. https://www.institutdemaconnerie.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/vocabulaire_de_la_maconnerie.pdf 
• Ville de Lévis. (s.d.). Composantes et modèles architecturaux. Ville de Lévis. https://www.ville.levis.qc.ca/developpement-planification/architecture-patrimoniale/composantes-et-modeles/?idfiche=34  

Written by Delia Oltean –

In the barn near the Maison Hurtubise, the discovery of a magnificent outdoor wrought iron bench raised many questions as to its origin and history.

A two-seater bench, of which most of the furniture—i.e., the backrest, the armrests, and the legs—is composed of wrought iron crafted to create a set of arabesques and floral patterns. The seat, on the other hand, is made of wood. It is possible to assume that the bench must have been used outside the house as garden furniture.

There is very little information about the mystery around this piece of furniture. However, it is possible to know that the manufacturer of the bench is called The Coalbrookdale Company. Coalbrook, in addition to being the name of the manufacturer, is a village in England known for being the first place of mining and metallurgical development in the first phase of the Industrial Revolution in England (Montagne, 2007). Currently, the Coalbrookdale Museum of Iron has a bench in its archives identical to the one at Hurtubise House.

According to the information of this second bench in England, we can date the furniture around the year 1859. Apparently, at that time, a series of garden furniture (benches and chairs) were made of wrought iron, using different floral patterns. The one at the Hurtubise House is likely called the Oak and Ivy Chair (Stephen, 2015). 

The reasons why the Hurtubise family could have owned this piece of furniture from the other side of the ocean are still unknown…

Sources:

• Stephen, G. A. (30 mars 2015). Oak and Ivy Chair. Coalbrookdale Museum of Iron. https://geotopoi.wordpress.com/2015/04/14/coalbrookdale-museum-of-iron-great-exhibition/coalbrookdale-museum-of-iron-20150330-18-oak-and-ivy-chair/
• Montagne, R. (2 Mai 2007). Coalbrookdale and the History of Coal Power. NPR. https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9955564 

Written by Delia Oltean –

To protect oneself in case of danger, to provide for oneself, to hunt animals, to wage war… What do all these things have in common? The answer to this question is an object that can be held in one’s hands, a complex and meticulously worked object, a firearm.

One only has to go into the kitchen of the Maison Hurtubise, take a few steps towards the fireplace to revive our memory of warmth, the warmth of a robust flame used in the past in the kitchen. Nearby are two old-fashioned gunpowder firearms that bear witness to a rich history concerning the whole of the Nouvelle-France.

We must go back as far as the arrival of the Europeans in America to realize the starting point of the emergence of firearms, which were first exchanged with the natives. It is important to know that at that time, transactions between natives and Europeans were done by barter (exchange of one good for another) and firearms were not just simple objects introduced into daily life. Revolutionizing the social hierarchy, the way of hunting and even warfare, firearms also changed the relationship between indigenous peoples and settlers. Indeed, the battles in the forest conducted thereafter would occur on a more egalitarian basis, while the natives would also have the opportunity to defend themselves with this same effective weapon (Marchand, 2006).

Although the settlers had not discovered firearms when they were establishing themselves in America, their relationship with this object changed a lot. In Nouvelle-France, the use of firearms was free and unrestricted, giving the population the legal and moral right to own them. However, under the threat of the natives, between 1654 and 1658, a law was introduced to make it mandatory to always carry a gun. Although this measure aimed at protecting the population existed, it does not seem to have been very effective: there were too few weapons in circulation (Blais).

The downside is that very few firearms, if any, are made in Nouvelle-France. Why was this? Under the laws of mercantilism, the colony only served to bring raw materials to the metropolis. This law generates an almost unique consumption of goods coming from the metropolis by the inhabitants of the colony. Most firearms therefore came from France or, in smaller quantities, from other European countries such as England or Holland (Bouchard, 1999). Knowing this, it makes sense that not enough firearms were imported to accommodate the population. 

Nevertheless, the profession of gunsmith existed in Nouvelle-France. Travelling for the most part directly from France with very limited financial resources, the men practicing this trade did more repairs on guns than the actual manufacturing of the weapons (Bouchard, 1978).

The history of firearms is a rich one! It is a distant history that tells of all the changes that a “new” technology could bring to the society of Nouvelle France, as well as to the way of life of the natives.

Sources:

• Marchand, M. (2006). Le troc des cultures: algonkiens et blancs dans la forêt des Trois-Rivières. Cap-aux-Diamants. https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cd/2006-n86-cd1046137/6996ac.pdf 
• Blais, J.F. (s.d.). Le contrôle des armes à feu en Nouvelle-France. 104 histoires de Nouvelle-France. http://104histoires.com/videos/le-controle-des-armes-a-feu-en-nouvelle-france/
• Bouchard, R. A. (1999). Les armes à feu en Nouvelle-France. Septentrion. http://classiques.uqac.ca/contemporains/bouchard_russel_aurore/Armes_a_feu_Nouvelle-France/Armes_a_feu_Nouvelle-France.pdf
• Bouchard, R. A. (1978). Les armuriers de la Nouvelle-France. Ministère des affaires culturelles. https://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/2096619 

Written by Delia Oltean –

Between all sorts of treasures and wooden boards was a large wooden sign with a barely perceptible message…

Buried in the back of the barn at Maison Hurtubise, it was not until around 2010 that this discovery was made. Like a golden nugget that has not yet been refined, the sign was taken out of the barn and brought to a restorer. Little by little, the letters appeared until they revealed themselves to us:

“Lots for Sale on Hurtubise and Westmount Aves. Apply on promises or 432 Board of Trade”

This find is worth much more than what one might think at first glance about a simple wooden sign forgotten in a barn. This sign is nothing less than a perfect representation of a period of transition for the Hurtubise family. Having been farmers since the house was built in 1739, the family’s livelihood evolved over time, moving the house from a rural to an urban setting where agriculture was no longer practiced.

At the very beginning, in 1739, it was the cultivation of cereals which provided the employment of the family members. Years later, discovering the cultivation of fruits and vegetables (vegetable growing), the family gradually abandoned grain until all agricultural activity ceased following the development of the land in the City of Côte-Saint-Antoine (formerly the City of Westmount) in residential lots.

However, this change of land use did not happen overnight. It was rather inserted in the agriculture that was still being done at that time. To be more precise, it is in 1846 that the first sale of a lot of Hurtubise land occurred. Sold to Hugh Ramsay, an English publisher and bookseller, the lot sold marked the beginning of housing development for the family. In 1873, a large portion of the farm at the bottom of Côte-Saint-Antoine Road was sold to Ephrem Hudon, leaving an area far too small to farm. This is a turning point for the Côte-Saint-Antoine neighborhood as it begins to develop more and more into an urban area. 

Around the 1890s and 1900s, the Hurtubise family members became successful professionals who no longer had any contact with farming. They concentrated on selling their remaining land, which they divided into smaller lots for housing development. It is not at all coincidental that the City of Westmount grew during these same years and that the entire region became progressively urbanized, driven by numerous municipal projects.

Still observable today, a relic of this transitional era is the barn. Built around the 1890s, it seems that it became a carriage house for the family who no longer needed a traditional barn to protect the agricultural harvest. The different use of the barn goes perfectly with the new vocation of the Hurtubise’s land, becoming simply their place of residence.

The last generation of Hurtubise living in the house was not just simple professionals, as a large part of their interests were in the arts and culture. When Leopold Hurtubise acquired the house in 1909, he wished to undertake renovations which began in 1911. Thus, Léopold Hurtubise’s interest in the arts was also reflected in the renovations, particularly in the gallery with its Beaux-Arts style architecture.

After being renovated, the house was then transformed into what one could call a “villa”. The money invested in the renovations increased its value and the location away from the smelly downtown area was part of the characteristics of a villa. But what happens to the existing land if it is no longer used for agricultural purposes?

Reminiscent of a resort, the land takes on a country atmosphere and is ultimately used only by the family. A few photos show friendly gatherings that must have taken place outside the house. The family is certainly far from the days of the farmhouse!

With all this information in mind, it is much easier now to understand why the wooden sign reflects this important transitional period in the careers of the family members, as well as the changing role of the house and the land. It is in the few words of the sign, however, that a mystery still lies…

Around 2010, when the wooden sign had not yet been discovered, the President of the Westmount Historical Association came to share information with the Executive Director of Maison Hurtubise about the name of a part of Victoria Street. It seems that the Hurtubise family had the idea of naming the part of Victoria Street that was north of Côte-Saint-Antoine Road “Hurtubise Avenue”. Shortly after Miss Lindsay’s visit, the wooden sign in the barn was discovered. Written in black letters, there was finally a trace of “Hurtubise Ave.”!

Some additional research has thickened the mystery since it does not seem that such a name has been recorded elsewhere. An avenue bearing the name of Hurtubise can only be a will of the family or a temporary name. We have yet to discover the end of the story…

Nevertheless, historical research done in 2004 presents interesting elements on the beginning of the period of the sale of the lots located near Wesmount Ave. placing it possibly around 1885 – 90. A small anecdotal fact: the Board of Trade building referred to in the sign burned down in 1901 and was later rebuilt elsewhere.

Without a discovery such as this wooden sign, part of the history would have been lost. Bringing in elements that cannot be traced elsewhere, the sign is a perfect example of the change from rural to urban life for the members of the last generation of Hurtubise. So, it’s not just a simple wooden sign!

Written by Delia Oltean –

Doors must be closed, shutters and curtains too; there is a cold wind blowing outside which is trying very hard to infiltrate in the house.  Family members gather in the same room in front of a huge masonry construction, the fireplace.  The flickering of the orange flames brings a light in everyone’s eyes.

Winter has always been a challenge for Montrealers and the Hurtubise family had to face this reality too.  The story behind the soothing warmth coming from the Hurtubise’s fireplaces likely brings a glimmer of light in their eyes, that of curiosity.

The Hurtubise House has two fireplaces which are located respectively to the west, in the living room, and to the east, in the kitchen, which is used for both heating and cooking purposes.  When the Hurtubise family decided to extend the original version of the house and add an annex at the end of the XIX^th century, the discovery of stones in the form of an arch revealed the presence of vestiges of what had originally been a bread oven in the kitchen’s fireplace (Stewart et Robichaud, 2001, page 45).

From this last fireplace used for cooking, it is possible to see stones coming out from the bottom which is a direct testimonial of the past.  It appears that fireplaces as well as bread oven form part of the original masonry contract which dates back to 1739 (Stewart et Robichaud, 2001 pg. 45).

There have been other discoveries and in 2011 an archeological excavation was done at the Hurtubise House to look further into the researches carried out, this time, on the fireplace on the west side.  It appeared that, due to a water leak, the hearth (stones located on the floor in front of the fireplace) got detached over time, resulting in an accumulation of ashes inside.  Archeologists have proceeded to the sifting of the ashes and have made crucial discoveries revealing material objects in direct correlation with the people living in the Hurtubise House since 1739.  Tangible fragments such as a red brown flintlock rifle which dates back to the XVIII^th century or more inexplicably a golden ceramic rosary form part of these findings (Archéotec, 2012, pg. 81-82).

When referring to the fireplace on the west side, it must be specified that a metal trap used for controlling the draught is located in the chimney.  With the help of a handle on the side, it is possible to open or close the trap in order to control the fire intensity and the heat in the room.  There is also a sliding metal partition in front of the hearth which can be moved from top to bottom and held in place with metal pins.  This partition also helps to reduce draught and to improve the home heating.  When the fireplace is not used, a wooden trap covers the hearth opening.  However, the mantel made of wood appliqués which dates back to the 18^th century, stays permanently on the fireplace.

The fireplaces are not the only items of interest in the house as the Hurtubise House’s collection also comprises a wood box which was perhaps used to store firewood.  Made of a smaller dimension, this box is also called a kindling box or hod box and is made of wood covered with decorated brass.  Depending on the type of kindling box, the brass cover shows different artwork.

It is around fireplaces, very useful elements at that time but more discreet nowadays because they are not used, that a rich history has evolved and gives us a glimpse one layer at a time of the elements buried by time and ashes.

Sources:

• Stewart, A. et Robichaud, L. (2001). Étude patrimoniale de la maison des Hurtubise. Rapport présenté au Ministère de la Culture et des Communications et à l’Institut d’histoire de l’Amérique française.
• Archéotec. (2012). Maison Hurtubise. Rapport d’inventaire et supervision archéologiques. 
• This Old Thing: Decorative ‘hod boxes’ often held coal. (2012). The Record. https://www.therecord.com/life/2012/08/18/this-old-thing-decorative-hod-boxes-often-held-coal.html 

Written by Delia Oltean –

“Servants, fetch some snow from the mountain. Bring honey and fruit juice!” 

A legend says that the Roman Emperor Nero, who lived from 37 to 68 AD, sent his servants to fetch ice from the mountain tops to be sprinkled with a sweetening element, thus creating an early version of the ice cream known to all today. 

However, the first known appearance of this tempting dessert does not date back to the time of Emperor Nero. In China, nearly 2000 years ago, sorbet was created by mixing fruit juice or wine with snow and saltpetre (also called potassium nitrate to lower the freezing point of water).

Initially made of ice, ice cream had to wait until the greed of Catherine de Medici and the inventiveness of her chefs to find cream as a substantial ingredient. It seems then that ice cream takes more and more popularity during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries among the wealthier classes (Neyrat. 2017).

It was at the turn of the 1700s that the frozen dessert appeared in the United States, provoking a huge craze in its favour, as can be seen in the first milk bars (around 1800), peddlers (around 1820) or ice cream cutting inventions (Barriault. 2002. p. 16). Quite visible in the kitchen of the Maison Hurtubise, an ice cream maker reminds us that this invention was created in 1846 by the American Nancy Johnson. Consisting of a watertight bucket used to hold ice and salt, the ice cream maker has a metal container in the middle to hold the cream or sorbet (L’histoire de la sorbetière : entre tradition et innovation. 2020). A crank turns the container and after about thirty minutes, the desired result appears!

In Quebec, it was not until the 20^th century that this dessert became popular, as the rather small-scale machinery reduced the quantity of ice cream produced, thus inflating the price of the dessert (Barriault. p. 17). With industrialization and new ways of speeding up the ice cream making process in factories, more affordable prices allowed the less affluent population to access it more frequently. It is interesting to note that struggles for mandatory pasteurization of milk led to clear standards for ice cream in the so-called Adulteration Act of 1910. 

In Quebec, the 1950s marked the end of the association of ice cream as a luxury food when the government removed its tax on it.

Sources:

• Neyrat, P. (22 juin 2017). Glaces et sorbets : l’histoire d’une fraîcheur millénaire. Académie du goût. https://www.academiedugout.fr/articles/glaces-et-sorbets-lhistoire-dune-fraicheur-millenaire_3246 
• L’histoire de la sorbetière : entre tradition et innovation. (24 juillet 2020). Hubert Cloix. https://www.hubertcloix.com/lhistoire-de-la-sorbetiere-entre-tradition-et-innovation/ 
• Barriault, F. (2002). Quel délice ! La crème glacée ! Cap-aux-Diamants. Cap-aux-Diamants,(71).16-17.https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cd/2002-n71-cd1044845/7479ac.pdf

Written by Delia Oltean –

The branches feeding the fire crackle softly around the house and mingle with the sound of water bubbling in a large pot over the fire. It is mealtime and along with the soup, some vegetables need to be washed. Under a window is a large, somewhat hollow stone: the sink.

If you go back in time and follow the popular Latin, you will realize that the word “évier” (sink) originates from the word “aquarium”, which refers, according to Le Petit Robert, to “eau” (water). In fact, kitchen sinks have existed for a long time and have changed shape over time, adapting to the needs and technologies available. Visible in French castles dating back to the Middle Ages, the sink was already used “to discharge outside the water used to wash dishes” (Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle/Évier, 2014, par. 1). This kitchen element consisted of a hollowed-out stone, usually placed in front of a window. A hole was drilled in the wall from which the water used for washing dishes and fruit and vegetables flowed out. 

Since running water was not yet available at the time of the construction of the Hurtubise House in 1739, the water used for cooking was drawn by hand and contained in a pitcher or bucket (Varin, 1991, p. 50) before being used. Once soiled, the water was drained through the hole in the wall before being recovered and used for other purposes such as the maintenance of the vegetable garden. In order not to leave a permanent hole in the wall of the house, a wooden peg covered the hole when it was not in use (Séguin, 1972, p. 207). It is not uncommon to find that the “évier” (sink) was also called a “lévier” or even “lavier” (Dunn, 1880). 

It was not until the 19th century that some wealthier families were able to build sinks with pumps connected to them, which greatly facilitated access to water. Initially made of stone, the late 1800s saw the diversification of sink construction materials, with pressed steel and even enamelled metal replacing stone (Varin, 2007, p. 53). Taps also added to the comfort of the kitchen, allowing the use of running water. 

The Hurtubise House has retained its stone sink for a very long period due to the delay in the installation of running water by the family. Despite the modern plumbing used today, it is possible to see this interesting feature in its original state.

Sources:

• Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle/Évier. (7 février 2014). Dans Wikipedia. https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionnaire_raisonn%C3%A9_de_l%E2%80%99architecture_fran%C3%A7aise_du_XIe_au_XVIe_si%C3%A8cle/%C3%89vier
• Dunn, O. (1880). Glossaire Franco-Canadien et vocabulaire de locutions vicieuses usitées au Canada. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13230/13230-h/13230-h.htm 
• Évier, Le Petit Robert, https://petitrobert12.lerobert.com/robert.asp 
• Séguin, R-L.(1972). L’habitation traditionnelle au Québec. Les Cahiers des dix. https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cdd/1972-n37-cdd01426/1025297ar.pdf 
• Varin, F. (2007). Leçons de plomberie. https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/continuite/2007-n112-continuite1055840/17492ac.pdf 
• Varin, F. (1991). Les cuisines anciennes. https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/continuite/1991-n51-continuite1052517/17732ac.pdf

First of all, we hope you are all well.

With the health regulations regarding COVID-19 finally having changed, we are able to reopen La Maison Hurtubise to the public and we are very excited about that.

As you already know, the year 2021 marked the 65^th anniversary of the preservation of Hurtubise House (Circa 1739) by the Canadian Heritage of Quebec. The preservation of the Hurtubise House is at the origin of our organization.

To mark this anniversary, we have been working for over a year on a remarkable exhibition. It is an exhibition on some of the photographs taken by Dr. Léopold Hurtubise around 1901–1908 with his new “Premo” camera. Nearly 20 photographs will be exhibited at the Hurtubise House, all of which were taken from old glass negatives. Close to 300 of them are in our archives.

We can finally invite you to come and see this exhibition as well as to visit the Hurtubise house. The schedule for the 2022 summer season will be as follows: from July 7 to August 18, three days a week (Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday). It will be necessary to reserve your guided tour by writing to the following address: coord@hcq-chq.org.

And that’s not all: a second piece of good news allows for a great start to the 2022 season…

A series of articles will be published twice a week to delve more deeply into specific topics that will complement any visit to the house. From the origins of ice cream to the early history of the City of Westmount, there is an interesting story for everyone.

Be on the lookout for these weekly news capsules on our website, on La Maison Hurtubise Facebook page  and Instagram.

We look forward to meeting you this summer.

The Wooton desk is a variation of the fall front desk.

History

An Indianapolis, Indiana, entrepreneur (who was later to become a Protestant preacher) called William S. Wooton obtained patents for his design and established a company in 1870. Production continued until about 1884. The Wooton desk is their better known secretary desk; the Wooton desk company also produced a so-called rotary desk, which is in fact a pedestal desk whose pedestals have segments which turn on themselves to expose more drawers and nooks.

The Wooton desk was introduced at the end of the 19th century, at a time when office work was changing in a drastic fashion with an increase in paperwork that led to the introduction of filing cabinets, among other things. The white-collar worker invaded the office in huge numbers. The new reservoir based fountain pen and the typewriter were used to produce greater quantities of office documents than ever before. In this context, desks which required users to fold and title each letter or document and place it in a pigeon hole, or small nook, were simply not efficient. It was faster to place an unfolded piece of paper in a folder and place the folder in a file cabinet or file drawer.

Wooton desks in good condition are sometimes sold in auctions for the same price as a top of the line luxury automobile.

Design

Wooton desks were probably not the costliest desks in series production, but they were possibly the ones with the most drawers, nooks and crannies imaginable. Only a few examples of the cupboard desk had more divisions, but they were of a very utilitarian different style, and were often produced by the very families or communities which used them, such as the Shakers. The armoire desk is the closest modern relative to the Wooton, and despite the use of rich veneers by some makers, it is a much more practical piece of furniture.

The Wooton secretary desk usually rests on a four-legged quadruped support equipped with casters. The main body of the desk is filled with dozen or several dozen (depending on the model) of small drawers and nooks for papers and small objects.

As in a «secrétaire à abattant» or in a Fall front desk the main working surface or desktop is hinged and lifted completely from the horizontal to the vertical in order to lock up the desk, forcing the user to gather up and store all papers and implements beforehand. Unlike the «secrétaire à abattant» however, the Wooton desktop hides only a few of the small drawers and nooks. The real lockup is done by closing two massive hinged panels which are themselves as deep as the desk and are like it filled with small drawers and nooks of all sizes.

References

• Boyce, Charles, Dictionary of Furniture, 2nd ed. New York: Roundtable Press Book, 2001.
• Gloag, John, A Complete Dictionary of Furniture, Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 1991.
• Showalter, Camille, and Janice Driesbach, Wooton Patent Desks: A Place for Everything and Everything in its Place (1983) ISBN 0-253-28930-0
• Walters, Betty Lawson, The King of Desks: Wooton’s Patent Secretary, Smithsonian Studies in History and technology #3, Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1969.